In Iranian traditional medicine, urine was used to diagnose the health status. In order to help in the diagnosis of diseases, the physician in Iranian traditional medicine took advantage of urine specimen, which was called Boul, Tafsereh, or implicitly Qarureh in different texts. It should be noted that in various traditional medicine texts, the time, condition, and method of obtaining the sample are discussed. Moreover, on the basis of quality in terms of color, appearance, other detailed differential diagnoses were made. In the current paper, we will address the viewpoints of traditional medicine on the method of obtaining a urine specimen (including the time and method of obtaining the sample, as well as the condition and place of keeping it). Furthermore, a brief overview will be provided on differential diagnoses achieved by analysis of nature and quality of urine including color, appearance, and odor, as well as the status of urine in different ages and conditions.

Khuz and Khuzi and their books, Shusemahi and Jame-al Khuz are frequently cited in major sources of ancient Iranian and Islamic medicine. However, unfortunately these books are not available today. In this study, the four books "Al-Qanun fi’l-Tibb" (the Canon of Medicine) by Avicenna, "Al-Hawi" by Rhazes, "al-Jami al-Mufrada al-Aghzie- va al-Adwiya" by Ibn al-Baytar, and "Al-Seidene" by Al-Biruni, are thoroughly investigated for the first time and all citations related to Khuz and Khuzi were determined. Khuz and Khuzi were cited 217 times in Al-Hawi, 16 times in Al-Qanun, 44 times in al-Jami al-Mufrada al-Aghzie- va al-Adwiya, and 17 times in Al-Seidene. Considering phrases such as "Khuz agreed that ...", "most Khuz believe that...", "It was mentioned in Jame-Al Khuz", "Al-Khuz in Shusemahi …", "in Shusemahi, Al-Khuz mentioned that ...", it seems that for the first time in the history of medicine, the scientists of Jondishapur medical school composed their viewpoints and ideas, based on a consensus of the time over them, thus rendering due credit to the scholars who had worked on the same topic prior to them. Moreover, considering the direct citations of Biruni and Ibn al-Baytar to Khuz and Khuzi without any intermediate links, it is possible that in those days some books of Khuzi were accessible in different regions, as far as Andalus.

“Esparzeh”, is a genus from the Plantaginaceae family, which has been identified in traditional Iranian medicine as a plant with different seed colors including white, red and, black, and different names like “Esfarzeh”, “Aspghul”, “Asphiush”, “Ghatouna” and “Bangou”. In this paper, we attempted to determine the suitable scientific name(s) for Esparzeh according to its characteristics described in traditional manuscripts. Results showed that characteristics mentioned in traditional manuscripts for Esparzeh match with two endemic and prevalent species of Plantago in Iran, P. ovata Forssk. and P. psyllium L., and can be individualized by the suggested names, “Esparzeh” for P. ovata Forssk. and “Esparzeh barhangi” for P. psyllium L..

Avicenna was particularly interested in identification of drug effects on human body, which is the subject of medical pharmacology. In the second book of “Al-Qanun fi’l-tib” (the Canon of Medicine), which is on the components of drugs and pharmacological evaluation of drugs, Avicenna addressed identification of drug effects through experimental and comparative methods in details. He believed in animal and human experiments for confirmation of the effects of a drug. However, he considered human and clinical experiments as the final criterion for confirmation of a drug effect. This is what is known as clinical trial in modern pharmacology. He proposed a number of conditions for validity of basic and clinical experiments, which show the discernment of this great scientist. While respecting the ideas of other scientists and quoting from them, Avicenna preferred the results of experiments and followed the truth when observed conflicts between the ideas of scientists and the observations of accurate experiments. In such cases, he presented the consensus ideas and the results of his experiments evidently, honestly, and with respect. In this text, we have compared the identification of pharmacological effects of some drugs from the view points of Avicenna and some modern medical textbooks

Introduction: Zireh Kermani, with the scientific name of Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. fedtsch, is a plant belonging to Umbelliferae family. In some Iranian traditional medicine references, the fruits of Zireh are introduced as processed with vinegar and heat. Thus, the study examines qualitative and quantitative effects of this process on the plant compounds.
Methods: Bunium persicum fruit was prepared from a standard source and then processed according to the method noted in Iranian traditional medicine references. Thin layer chromatography was used for determination of flavonoid and coumarin compounds of the plant. Additionally, polyphenolic compounds were measured by Folin-Ciocalteau method, before and after processing of the plant.
Findings: Thin layer chromatography indicated that a certain amount of flavonoid and coumarin compounds entered vinegar. Presence of kaempferol and caffeic acid was observed in all samples of TLC analysis. Also, polyphenolic compounds increased in later stages of the process.
 Discussion and conclusion: As by the process, a certain amount of flavonoid and coumarin compounds entered vinegar or changed by thermal effects and also polyphenolic compounds increase, the aims of this process can be decreasing the side-effects of the medicine and increase the particular effects

Introduction: This research analyzes mapping scheme of Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM) in the structure of metathesaurus and Semantic network of Unified Medical Language System (UMLS), for the reflection of potential of ITM -at least in the level of its concepts- in a universal paradigm.
Methods: The method of this research has three phases: System analysis method, Documentary method and System designing method. In the first phase, the structure of UMLS and ITM are studied and UMLS structure is searched for the ideal location of ITM. In the second phase, literature and resources of ITM analyzed, then three examples prepares which includes: “Urine color” sign, “Epilepsy” disease, and “valerian” herbal drug, with whole of their branches, was extracted from among of total category of ITM science. Finally in the last phase, the examples that was extracted in second phase, was mapped with the UMLS concepts. In this case, conceptual and semantically relations analyzed and some new semantically relation are proposed for the first time.
Findings: Outcome of this research is a prototype of ITM structure and it's semantically relation with UMLS concepts in the UMLS.
Discussion and conclusion: The results indicate that although the current domain of UMLS has been covered suitable number of ITM’s concepts, but UMLS cannot reflex complete and formal structure from ITM’s knowledge. In this thesis, the hierarchical structure of ITM is designed for the first time in the base of international models. On the other hand, the location of ITM science in UMLS structure and conceptual relation between ITM concepts and UMLS concepts are proposed for the first time.

Genetics and physiopathology have shown that the incidence of a disease can arise from different etiologies including mutation in different genes and various molecular mechanisms. However, the clinical signs can be apparently common. Furthermore, the patients may be different in terms of drug absorbance, and effect, effectiveness, and side-effects of the drugs. Thus, along with following the therapeutic approaches, while prescribing a drug, physicians make use of their inference based on their personal experiences. In modern pharmaceutical sciences, it is tried to find ways to produce more effective drugs on the basis of pharmacogenetics and not only disease mechanism or genetics. The objectives of this approach are to achieve maximal clinical response with the least side-effects and production of drugs for a particular individual or disease. Nevertheless, estimation of the effectiveness and probable side-effects of drugs are so complex, since they result from the interaction of many known and unknown factors with each other. Research institutes are seeking new research methodologies to achieve the simplest and the most cost-effective methods with the highest success rate. In the Iranian traditional medicine, temperament is a key concept in defining health and illness of human. In this viewpoint, as the fingerprint of no one is similar to that of another person, temperament of no one is similar to that of others. Moreover, specific changes occur in the individual’s temperament in many diseases, which can be differentiated according to a set of defined and classified concepts. It is assumed that by categorizing patients according to their type of disease and considering the patients’ temperament, the disease temperament, and the drugs’ temperament, drug effectiveness or the probability of side-effects occurrence can be predicted more accurately. In other words, the way of accomplishing pharmacogenetic objectives can be shortened by considering the temperament phenotypes.

“Barhang”, a genus from the family of Plantaginaceae, has been identified in Iranian traditional medicine with different names such as “Lessan-al-hamal”, “Bartang”, and “Khargooshak”. Two kinds of this plant, major and minor, has been considered in the Iranian traditional manuscripts. In this paper, we tried to determine the scientific names of these two species, according to their characteristics mentioned in the Iranian traditional manuscripts and also propose appropriate Persian names for these scientific names. It was concluded that the characteristics of the two species of “Barhang” in the traditional medicine are completely matched with the two species of Plantago “major” with P. major and “minor” with P. lanceolata. The suggested Persian names for the species are “Barhang-e-kabir” for P. major and “Barhang-e-sarneizehee” for P. lanceolata

The issues related to medicinal plants are among the most important and interesting issues of medical sciences in recent decades. The history of taking medicinal plants goes back to the existence of man on the Earth. Almost all tribes and nations have used medicinal plants in their history. Kasni (Cichorium intybus L.), which is known to have various effects including anti-hepatotoxic, anti-malaria, blood glucose decreasing, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, has been widely used in Iran and many other countries. In the books of Iranian traditional medicine, the plant is known as Hendeba, and the traditional Hakims considered the plant to have a cold temperament. It was traditionally taken as diuretic, laxative, and also a medicine that improves liver and gall bladder function as well as the appetite. Some of these effects have been approved with modern laboratory evaluations. In this study, we have tried to introduce the plant and its effects in traditional and modern medicine. This is achieved by reviewing the references of Iranian traditional medicine as well as the observations cited in recent scientific evidence, and carrying out comparative evaluation of these items.

Fever is one of the complications of the disease, whose etiology may remain unrecognized in diagnostic evaluations in some cases. Avicenna, the Iranian scientist, classified fever on the basis of the etiology of the involved organ, timing of fever, and the involved temperaments. According to him, the three types of fever are Dagh fever, phlegmatic fever, and daily fever. Avicenna emphasized on history taking and careful examination of patients and stated that the physician should ask about anything that is related to the events before occurrence of fever. It seems that understanding the ideas proposed in the traditional medicine can be helpful in diagnosis and treatment of the underlying causes of fever.

One type of headache in the Iranian traditional medicine is the participatory gastric headache. It is defined as the headache not originated from the disorders of head and neck rather the pain in the head is caused by gastric dysfunction and its diseases. Treatment of this type of headache is completely dependent on the treatment of the gastric disorder. Since this type of headache is not considered in the classifications of the International Headache Society (HIS), we have carried out this study to review the most reliable textbooks of the Iranian traditional medicine to define the participatory gastric headache, its causes, its different types, and the symptoms. The study is a review of the textbooks of the Iranian traditional medicine such as the Qanon, Zakhireh-e Kharazmshahi, Al-Havi, Exir-e Azzam, Moalejat-e Aghili, and Sharh al-Asbab va al-Alamat. In the review, it was found that the headache originated from the gastric and GI disorders is evidently defined in these textbooks, and it was described in all the books. The headache was classified into the following categories:
1- Headache cause by a simple dyspepsia, 2- headache caused by dyspepsia of the gastric humors (bile, phlegm, and black bile), 3- headache caused by gastric bloating, 4- headache caused by production of vapors in the stomach, and 5- headache caused by the weakness of gastric sphincter.
Moreover, the symptoms and treatments of all these types had been described in details. So, it can be concluded that in contrast with the modern medicine, this type of headache has a clear position in the Iranian traditional medicine, and Iranian physicians were familiar with and treated it.

Nowadays, traditional medicine and ethnobotany are the two important issues that have attracted interest in many countries. Traditional medicine deals with past studies and experience and ethnobotany relates to the native botany of a region. In recent years, these topics have received particular importance in many countries, including European countries. Considering the scarcity of information on effects of medicinal plants, traditional medicine and ethnobotany can play an important role in discovering the unknowns. Considering the various geographical conditions in our country, different ecosystems and flora exist in Iran. As there is growing need in today's world for new herbal drugs and considering the industrialization of this sector, we should pay more attention to the herbal sources of the country from this viewpoint. In the current study, the plants of some parts of Kashan were collected, systematically identified, and studied in two consecutive years. Furthermore, the traditional uses of these plants were recorded through interviewing local people. These plants were mostly used in the treatment of gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases by local people. It was shown that most plants grow in the area were medicinal. Therefore, further evaluation of the plants is recommended.

“Advieh-e Jadideh” (Novel drugs) is a term used by Aghili Khorasani to introduce some of the single drugs of his pharmacopoeia. He defined this term as drugs originated abroad with no history of use in Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM). Study of this issue has some historical points like mercantile aspects of traditional pharmacy. However, the current investigation tries to clarify the approach of traditional physicians in encountering with western system of pharmacy and medicine. To this end, the term “Advieh-e Jadideh” was searched through Aghili’s pharmaceutical books, i.e., Makhzan ul-Advia and Gharabadin-e Kabir and then the nature, source of preparation, and scientific name of these drugs were investigated. The results show that the term was used for 27 drugs in the books, out of which the scientific name of 16 were determined. The nature of most of the drugs was determined to be hot and dry and in determination of the nature of the drugs there were some controversies in some cases. Determination of the nature of the drugs was mostly based upon the use of them in foreign treatment systems. However, the common methods of comparison and experience were also employed. Out of the drugs, seven were originated from America, six from a region near Venezuela, and others were from China and other countries. The study shows that using other treatment systems along with the ITM was acceptable for Aghili Khorasani. The attempts to determine the nature of the drugs indicate the possibility of their integration into the drug system of ITM. With respect to the similar case ITM experience in dealing with modern medicine, it is suggested that by evaluation of the temperament of novel drugs and determination of the traditional mechanism of their effectiveness, the possibility of integration and simultaneous use of ITM with modern medicine be assessed

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory, autoimmune, demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. It generally strikes at the early adult years and is the most common cause of neurologic disability in young adults. The disease usually influences quality of life to a marked degree. Currently approved drug therapies for MS have different adverse effects and immunosuppressants and interferon β are still mainstays of the conventional management. The drawbacks of the current drug therapies for MS urge researchers to develop more effective drugs with fewer adverse effects. Indian hemp, Cannabis sativa L. is an indigenous herb to Asia, with a long history of use in different diseases. The plant was historically known as Ghennab in Iran and has been used in Iranian traditional medicine. Some Iranian physicians have described the botanical properties and its therapeutic effects in their books. As a conventional use, at present some MS patients take Cannabis to remove the spasticity and pain associated with this condition. Moreover, Cannabis has recently received much attention because of detection of an endogenous cannabinoid system in some parts of the human brain and the immune system, represented by two cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. Clinical studies suggest that activation of these receptors can relieve the clinical signs of MS particularly neuropathic pain and spasticity. Also, it is suggested that this can decrease inflammation and possibly slow down progression of the disease. The current study briefly introduces the plant and reviews the history of Cannabis and new pharmacological evidence that support the use of the plant in MS disease.

Studies have shown that application of complementary and alternative medicine is increasing in many countries. Statistical analyses have been performed to investigate how prevalent complementary and alternative medicine is employed and what the purpose of its application is. The results of these analyses explain the prevalence and variety of complementary and alternative medicine application among populations of different societies and have an important role in future programs of health systems. In this report, we address the results of some studies carried out in some countries.

Oqhovan is a major plant used in Iranian Traditional Medicine, which is identified as a type of Babouneh. Different pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, vasodilator, diuretic, emmenagogue, and sudorific have been reported for the plant. Other names used in traditional publications for this plant are babouneh gav, babouneh gav-chashm, and kafourieh. Oqhovan can be identified from other types of babouneh by its flower and fruit and its characteristics. Considering its botanical description in traditional medicinal and pharmaceutical tests, Oqhovan complied with Tanacetum parthenium, a plant from Compositae family.